FAQ #2: How ‘Old’ Do I Have to be to See You?

FAQ: How ‘Old’ Do I Have To Be to See You

(Hint: It’s a trick question)

I’ll answer this question with another question. Are you older than you were yesterday? Then you’re ‘old enough’ to see me.

As a geriatric physical therapist, I specialize in healthy aging. This means that while I’m a great person to see if you are having age-related issues like pain or limitation from arthritis, or trouble walking or difficulty with your balance, I’m also a great person to see if you want to PREVENT some of this stuff down the road.

There are so many diseases and disorders associated with aging (Congestive Heart Disease, Diabetes, Heart Disease, Osteoporosis and Cancer to name a few), but the key to prevention is making healthy choices, and developing healthy lifestyle habits BEFORE you get older. I’m 38 - and everyday I consciously make choices that will make me a healthier older person when I get there.

So, the answer to this question is you have to be exactly as old as you currently are:)

#haept #stronger #fitter #functional #physicaltherapist #physiotherapist #physicaltherapy #physiotherapy #exercise #health #wellness #aging #healthyaging #optimalaging #successfulaging #exerciseismedicine #insurance #medicare #momboss

Dementia 101

As a Physical Therapist, I don’t actually ‘treat’ dementia. But, I do treat a whole lot of patients with dementia. Why do people with dementia end up on my caseload? Frequently, people with dementia fall and have fall-related injuries that require physical therapy. People with dementia are also at increased risk for social isolation, malnutrition, inactivity and inevitably, functional decline. And more than anything, because I treat older adults as a specialty, dementia is simply one of the common diagnoses I find on that long list of age-associated diseases that follows my prompt for past medical history.

Now while we all learned about dementia in PT school, and as I’m sure any physical therapist can attest to, knowing the pathophysiology and clinical features of this disease does not inherently make you good at working with someone living with it. The challenge of working with someone with dementia is not knowing what they need (that’s the easy part), but in your ability to actually get a person with dementia to ‘do’ the things - to complete a motor task or physical activity - and even more so, to modify it, progress it, or make it safer for their bodies. This is the part that even the experienced physical therapist (quietly raises hand…) can actually find really challenging.

The Cold Hard Truth

I spent the first five years of my career working as an outpatient neurorehab therapist. The next seven, I spent as a homecare therapist seeing older adults with a wide variety of injuries, illness and sources of of their physical decline. I went to an excellent graduate school (shout out to MGHIHP!). This is not said to impress you, but to lay the ground work that even the most experienced and well-educated therapists may share some of the challenges, preconceived notions and perhaps even prejudices about working with people with dementia that I had. Here’s the Cold Hard Truth: working with people with dementia is HARD. PTs are BUSY. And sometimes, combining a patient whose diagnosis makes them more challenging, with busy schedules and the productivity demands commonly placed on physical therapists, leads us to draw the following common conclusions when we see that word ‘dementia’ on the laundry list of comorbid diagnoses:

“Oh, they have dementia, they won’t have any carryover.”

“This will be quick, I’ll only be in a few sessions.”

“I’ll just do the basics and get out of here.”

“Dementia means they have no potential to get better. I’ll focus on family teaching instead.”

Have you had some of these thoughts, too? Does this make us horrible therapists? Does it make us horrible people? NO! It makes us busy therapists trying to do our best for a large population of people with the resources (time, education, energy, sanity, empathy) that we have. Could we do better? Sure could. Before I dive into how, I want to give you a brief primer on this common brain disease.

Dementia 101

Dementia is not a specific diagnosis, but an umbrella term that accounts for variety of diseases that impair cognition, memory, processing and behavior. While impaired memory may be the classic sign, people with dementia experience a wide breadth of symptoms that progressively impacts their ability to care for themselves and others, to function within their communities, and to remain independent, mobile and healthy. While Alzheimer’s Dementia makes up the majority of dementia cases (60-80%), other types including Lewy Body Dementia, Frontotemporal, Vascular and Multinfarct Dementias are also commonly encountered by physical therapists. While some dementias are reversible (such as dementias due to dehydration or nutritional deficiencies, depression, medication toxicity or metabolic encephalopathy), the majority have a slow, insidious onset and progressive nature. There is, of course, some natural slowing of reaction time and processing associated with aging, and in the pathological realm, a condition known as ‘mild cognitive impairment’ that may share features with dementia, but they remain separate entities nonetheless. There are two key features that distinguish normal age-related cognitive changes and mild cognitive impairment with a true dementia:

1. The individual must demonstrate a decline from previous level of functioning.

2. The impairments must significantly interfere with work or usual social activity.

Early Signs and Symptoms of Dementia

Identified by the Alzheimer’s Association, the following ten signs are commonly seen in early Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. Of course, many of these can also often be a symptom of other diseases and disorders, so if you find any of these signs concerning, it’s always best practice to bring your concerns to your primary care team.

1. Memory loss that disrupts daily life.

2. Challenges in planning or solving problems.

3. Difficulty completing familiar tasks at home, at work or at leisure.

4. Confusion with time or place.

5. Trouble with understanding visual images and spatial relationships.

6. New problems with words in speaking or writing.

7. Misplacing things and losing the ability to retrace steps.

8. Decreased or poor judgement.

9. Withdrawl from work or social activities.

10. Changes in mood and personality.

Other types of dementia have their own commonly associated features:

With damage found in the brain’s outer cortex, Cortical Dementia tends to cause problems with memory, language, thinking and social behavior, with memory problems generally appearing first.

With damage to deeper structures, Subcortical Dementia causes more change in emotion and movement, along with problems with memory. In these cases, gait disturbances typically appear first.

The cumulative effect of many small strokes, Multi-Infarct Dementia typically presents with a progressive, stepwise decline in mental function and is typically seen in patients with a history of hypertension, smoking and cardiovascular disease.

Similar to multi-infarct dementia, and sometimes used interchangeably, Vascular Dementia is a result of chronic oxygen deprivation throughout the brain. Vascular dementia presents gradually, often presents with changes in vision, sensation and language deficits.

Lastly, there are some types of dementia that develop alongside of other diseases. Lewy Body Dementia can be diagnosed on it’s own or along with a Parkinson’s Disease diagnosis. With a clinical prognosis generally more worse than Alzheimer’s, symptoms typically include syncope, falls, loss of consciousness, delusions and hallucinations. Parkinson’s can also be associated with mild cognitive impairment with or without an eventual progression to full dementia in around 50-80% of patients with Parkinson’s Disease. Common symptoms of Parkinson's Disease Dementia include trouble with memory and concentration, visual hallucinations, depression and frequently, sleep disturbances. Dementias can also be found in people with ALS, Huntington’s Disease and in the setting of Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus and may be a consequence of an underlying brain tumor.

Communicating BETTER With a Person with Dementia

Getting back to my story here, I had the opportunity this fall to attend a virtual Dementia Friends Massachusetts Training. Dementia Friends is a global movement developed in the UK, which has now become a worldwide effort to change the way people think, act and talk about dementia. While this training was not physical therapy-specific (it is actually designed to educate the lay person in the community about being more compassionate to people with dementia) I found I was able to apply what I learned to greatly improve the way I was able to communicate with my patients with dementia, which in turn, enhanced how effective I was able to be as their therapist. In fact, I found this talk so helpful for my practice as a geriatric physical therapist, that I decided to complete the training to become a Dementia Friends Champion, so I can, in turn, train others. I was pleased to find that when I offered this training to other therapists involved in the geriatric community, the response was overwhelming. I currently have sixty therapists signed up to take this training with me in the month of December, and hope it is as helpful for them as it was for me.

So, what was it that I learned in this session that changed the way I treat? It gave me concrete tools to make communication easier, strategies that now enable me to more effectively teach the functional mobility tasks, therapeutic exercises and balance exercises needed to help these patients get stronger, improve mobility and decrease their risk of falls. It gave me a different sense of compassion then I had previously, allowing me to be a kinder, more empathetic therapist. It impressed on me the importance of teaching these skills - to other therapists, to family members, to the community - to widen the network of understanding individuals that surround people with dementia living in our communities. What follows are my favorite take-home messages from this training that I found most influential in my physical therapy practice. If you want to learn more, I encourage you to sign up for a Dementia Friends training session - and if you want to teach it to others, the Champion training.

Dementia slows processing time, but doesn’t make it impossible.

It can take up to 20 seconds from the time you say something, for it to be processed and understood by a person with dementia. While our instinct may be to rephrase or redirect when our initial direction goes unfollowed, try waiting that 20 seconds first. Often, while we may be trying to rephrase to make it more easily understandable, this actually adds more layers to be processed and makes the process more convoluted to the brain. Wait the 20 seconds, then either repeat the same request - or try an alternative approach.

Keep directions clear and simple. Less words. More demonstration.

Visual information is processed in a different area in the brain than speech and words. People with dementia will struggle more and more with explicit direction and declarative learning as their disease progresses. However, the ability to process visual cues, mimic demonstration and learn procedurally remains in-tact longer. Using strategies to promote procedural learning (familiar tasks, repetition, use of functionally-relevant exercise programs) will be more effective than explicitly teaching the task.

Feelings, like emotion, love and happiness, remain the longest.

We’ve all been there. Sitting in a hospital room or an assisted living apartment, with a person with dementia, locked into their own confusion, unable to communicate in any meaningful way. Do we try to communicate or simply work with them in silence? Do we use our tone, words and body language to promote an atmosphere of empathy and caring - or match them with an equal lack of expression. Armed with a better understanding that people with dementia are still able to feel an intrinsic sense of emotion, love and happiness, even without the ability to provide any reciprocity in conversation, I’m far more apt to provide them with a caring smile, accepting body language and efforts to engage them beyond whatever therapeutic tasks I may have planned.

And you know who needs to know this more than anyone? Their families.

The more people that understand these concepts, the better.

How many times do we witness well-meaning family members and friends (even sometimes, coworkers) falling into the pattern of talking ‘above’ their loved one with dementia, as if they aren’t even there? Getting frustrated, even laying blame on lack of effort, or ‘behaviors’ instead of the underlying brain disease that causes it in the first place? Don’t you think if they better understood the cause of these behaviors, and had the tools to communicate with less struggle, that they would be better able to support their loved one in a more compassionate way? There are 5 million Americans living with Alzheimer’s Dementia. There are 16 million others who provide unpaid care for them. Not to mention the community members that interact knowingly or unknowingly these individuals every day. Waiters and waitresses. Medical assistants and other health care professionals. Retail store clerks, librarians and other acquaintances. The more people people we educate, the greater the chance that an individual with dementia can be met patience, empathy and respect.

Ready to become a Dementia Friend?

Check my Upcoming Events page to see if I am offering a training and feel free to join me.

Or, check the Dementia Friends website to find a session local to you.

Diabetes 101

November is National Diabetes Awareness Month. To do my part, I’ve been sharing information each week about Diabetes - symptoms, causes, impact on the body and most importantly, about prevention. To wrap up the month, I’m putting it all together here on the website, in Diabetes 101.

Diabetes 101

Diabetes is the 7th leading cause of death in the United States, and the numbers of people living with Diabetes are increasing. Since I’ve been alive (I’m under 40, but over 35 for those of you wondering..), the number of cases of diabetes have QUADRUPLED. Trends project that by 2050, 1 out of ever 3 American adults will have Diabetes. 

While there are different types of Diabetes, the vast majority, 90-95%, have Type 2. While Type 2 Diabetes does have some genetic component, this is a preventable type of Diabetes. And for the folks in the back - THIS IS A PREVENTABLE DISEASE! Not only is it preventable, but people typically are often made aware by their doctors that they are developing it, and there are concrete ways to reverse course and normalize your blood sugar regulation to prevent progression to full course diabetes. Of the 86 million adults in the United States who are prediabetic, 15-30% will go on to develop full Type 2 Diabetes within 5 years. The key to prevention? Changing your habits and lifestyle to foster healthy eating habits, weight management and regular physical activity, But before I go on, and on and on, about the benefits of physical activity (have you heard this one before?), here is a quick primer on Diabetes.

Diabetes Is:

Diabetes is: a group of metabolic diseases that cause unmitigated blood sugar (hyperglycemia). While the body relies on sugar for energy production, too much free floating, unstored sugar, can wreak havoc and cause damage and dysfunction, and eventual failure, of organs throughout the body. Diabetes most commonly affects the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart and blood vessels. Long term effects of Diabetes can include:

• Retinopathy

• Nephropathy

• Peripheral Neuropathy (leading to skin breakdown, foot ulcers and often amputations)

• Autonomic Neuropathy (leading to gastrointestinal, genitourinary and cardiac symptoms)

• Atherosclerosis

• Cardiac Artery Disease

• Peripheral Artery Disease

• Cerebrovascular Disease

• Hypertension

• Abnormal Lipid Metabolism

There are a few different types of Diabetes. Type 1, or what used to be referred to as Juvenile Diabetes, is not preventable. This form is an autoimmune disorder where the body attacks the insulin-producing Beta cells in the pancreas, thereby preventing insulin formation. Without insulin, the body cannot break down sugar effectively leading to diabetes. People with Type 1 Diabetes rely on careful diet and exogenous insulin (injections) to manage their blood sugar, and while healthy diet and exercise is still important for someone with Type 1, it will not prevent Diabetes in this case. Type 1 Diabetes accounts for about 5% of Diabetic cases.

Type 2 on the other hand, develops over time, most frequently as a result of lifestyle choices. In the case of Type 2 Diabetes, insulin deficiency is relative, and due instead to insulin resistance. Between overexposure to sugary foods and carbohydrates, and lack of physical activity, more and more insulin must be produced to have the same effect, leading the body to become less sensitive to this hormone and leading to this state of insulin resistance. While Type 2 Diabetics may require pharmacological management (medications that improve insulin sensitivity) or exogenous insulin (injections), many can manage their disease with diet and exercise alone.

Symptom Presentation:

Whether you are experiencing Type 1 or Type 2 Diabetes, the symptoms that you experience are a result of either blood sugar that is too low (hypoglycemia) or too high (hyperglycemia). Symptoms of hypoglycemia include hunger, nervousness, shakiness, perspiration, dizziness, lightheadedness, sleepiness and confusion. Symptoms of hyperglycemia include frequent urination, increased thirst, sweet smelling breath and when progressed too far, ketoacidosis and coma. Initial signs of Diabetes can be a mix of these. Typically, the first signs of Diabetes include:

• Blurred vision

• Polyuria (Increased Urination) and Nocturia (nightime urination)

• Neuropathy (pain, tingling and numbness in hands and feet)

• High blood prssure

• Fatigue

• Confusion

• Itchy, dry skin

• Slow healing wounds and recurrent infections 

Diagnosis:

So how do you know if you are diabetic? There are two primary tests used to screen for, and diagnose Diabetes. Most commonly, if you are at risk or over a certain age, your primary care physician will order an A1C check. This provides an average of your blood sugars over the prior 2-3 month period. A normal value is under 5.7%; a prediabetic reading falls between 5.7 and 6.4%; and a test over 6.5% indicates Diabetes. If you have fasted, your doctor may take fasting blood sugar reading. This reflects your blood sugar, at the current place in time and results under 100 mg/dl indicate you fall in the normal range. Results between 100-125 mg/dl indicate you are prediabetic, and values over 126 mg/dl indicate Diabetes.

Concerned you may be at risk? There is a great resource available on the American Diabetes Association Website that helps you calculate your risk of developing this disease. You can access it here:

When in doubt, simply ask your doctor at your next visit about your risk of Diabetes, and what you can do to prevent it.

Prevention and Management:

Whether you find yourself at risk, diagnosed with Prediabetes or living with Type 2, lifestyle intervention can prevent or stop the progression of this disease. There are three keys to the prevention of Diabetes: Weight Management, Healthy Diet and Physical Activity.

While focusing on a healthy diet is important for everyone, weight management is a particularly important step for people who are overweight or obese. Eating a balanced, healthy diet, while increasing activity and energy expenditure should help to balance out your energy intake and improve your weight management. While I won’t go into too much detail here, the important thing is to identify if this is an issue for you and if so, seek support. A nutritionist, diabetic educator or the Dietary Guidelines for Americans are all great places to start. Choose My Plate.gov offers great online tools you can access here: 

I will, however, go into more detail about physical activity. If you’ve been on the HAE website before, I’m sure you’ve already heard that getting 150 minutes each week of moderately intense physical activity (plus strengthening twice a week) is incredibly beneficial and is THE most effective way to promote healthy aging. This is the same for Diabetes. Not only does regular physical activity help with weight management, but it lowers blood sugar, lowers cholesterol, improves blood pressure, and lowers stress, anxiety and improves mood. While counseling for patients found to be prediabetic includes encouraging increased physical activity, in my experience, there is a reason inactive people aren’t active in the first place. If it were that easy to simply start being active, chances are, they would have done it years ago. But pain, fear, inexperience, lack of time, lack of knowledge...these factors, unaddressed, are all barriers to exercise. 

Role of Physical Therapy in Diabetic Prevention and Management:

Physical Therapists are physical activity and exercise experts. We are experts at finding ways for everyone, in every shape, to become ACTIVE, safely and effectively. Exercise and physical activity can be life changing. It can ward off depression, manage anxiety, improve sleep, prevent disease like heart disease and some cancers. And it can reverse prediabetes and PREVENT DIABETES. 

Exercise lowers blood glucose and improves insulin sensitivity. It improves body composition and reduces adiposity (fat tissue), which when increased, is in itself a risk factor for development of Diabetes. It aids in weight management and makes you FEEL BETTER, and often, that alone, can help with making better food choices. 

So, climbing off my soapbox: this was my long-winded way of saying, good grief, if you have been told you are prediabetic, or had an impaired fasting glucose reading, now is the time to get ACTIVE! And if you need help, ask a PT:)

In summary, Diabetes is a quickly growing problem in the US. However, for the vast majority, this is a preventable disease! Learn about it, make healthy choices and get active. Great resources exist on the internet (ADA), but as always, your primary care physician is the best place to start. Ask the questions, make the changes and get stronger, fitter and healthier! 

the HAE series: the Pulmonary system part III

Part III, and my favorite part to write, reviews the concrete steps we can take to prevent pulmonary disease and slow age-related changes to the lungs.

Lifestyle Factors

First and foremost, cessation of smoking and avoidance of second hand smoke is, of course, the number one lifestyle modification you can make to protect your pulmonary system. Smoking is the greatest risk factor for developing COPD. Those who smoke more than 10-15 ‘pack years’ (1 pack of cigarettes per day for a year is ‘1 pack year;’ 2 packs of cigarettes for 1 year is ‘2 pack years.’) are at higher risk to develop COPD and the exposure to secondary hand smoke and other environmental irritants and air pollution can also increase your risk. Visit SmokeFree.org for some amazing tools to help you or your loved one quit.

Exercise and the Pulmonary System

Exercise also can have significant impact on the risk of developing, and the management of, pulmonary disease. Both aerobic exercise and strengthening activities play a role in your pulmonary health. Participating in the recommended 30 minutes of moderate exercise most days of the week works to improve the way the body is able to access and utilize oxygen. Aerobic exercise strengthens the cardiovascular system; with a stronger heart and healthier vascular system, the blood stream can transport the oxygen-rich blood with increase ease and efficiency. Participation in a regular strengthening program improves gas exchange within the musculoskeletal system. When the blood stream reaches the muscle, a stronger muscle is able to more quickly and efficiently extract the oxygen, which it can then use to make energy and contract more successfully.

Lastly, focused breathing exercises can improve the muscle function of the structures responsible for the act of breathing. These include the diaphragm, located under the lung set, the intercostal muscles found between the ribs and the accessory breathing muscles, located throughout the neck and abdomen that help with the work of breathing. These muscles, in particular, tend to become overused and overdeveloped in pulmonary disease states that frequently lead to dyspnea or shortness of breath. Physio-pedia has an excellent set of videos that illustrates how these muscles work together to support the cycle of breathing here if you want to check it out.

Respiratory Training

There are three exercises I typically take my patients through to strengthen both breath control and respiratory strength. Pursed lip breathing, belly breathing and straw breaths all work to teach proper breath sequence, timing and help to strengthen the muscles responsible for the cycle.

To perform pursed lip breathing, try following these steps:

1. Take a slow inhale through your nose, counting to 3-4 seconds as you go.

2. Pause, then exhale this breath through pursed lips (like you’re holding a straw) trying exhale slowly, doubling the time you spent on the inhale. If you inhaled for 2 seconds, exhale for 4. If you made it 4 seconds, exhale for 8.

This exercise can be used proactively to strengthen, and also reactively, to address shortness of breath. You can watch a video of pursed lip breathing here. Pursed lip breathing is especially important to people with COPD; this extended exhale allows the breather to exhale trapped carbon dioxide more effectively, further normalizing the breathing pattern and improving the associated feeling of shortness of breath.

Diaphragmatic breathing, or belly breathing, helps to normalize the breathing pattern, and better utilize the diaphragm, leading to deeper and more effective breathing patterns. In states of respiratory distress, instinct tends to trigger short, quick, repeated breathing. However, this pattern is less effective than deeper, diaphragmatic breathing and tends to exacerbate the shortness of breath instead of alleviating it. Practicing this technique at rest is helpful, so it can be used more effectively in states of dyspnea with less effort and more ease. To perform a proper diaphragmatic breath, follow these steps.

1. Sit comfortably with feet flat on the floor, or lay down flat in bed. Place hands on your belly and try to relax your body.

2. As you breathe in slowly through your nose, imagine filling your lungs to the very bottom and watch your hands rise as your belly expands.

3. As you exhale, watch your hands fall back down and your belly return to resting state.

This video link will show you diaphragmatic breathing in action.

The third exercise worth mentioning is straw breathing. It is similar to the pursed lip breathing above, but can sometimes be a little easier to coordinate. To perform, find a plastic straw and sit comfortably in a chair. Breathe in slowly through your nose, then exhale fully with lips wrapped tightly around the straw. Try to repeat 5 times and rest.

All three of these exercises are best performed when you are calm and at rest. Try to choose a time to perform them each day to create a habit; spending 5 minutes focused on each one 3-5 times a day can be extremely beneficial and will make using these strategies with the onset of shortness of breath more automatic and let you return to a resting state with increased ease.

the HAE series: the Pulmonary System part II

Normal Changes with Aging

As with all areas of the body, with advancing age, the lungs can be come less efficient. The diaphragm muscle responsible for the inhalation and exhalation can become weaker, decreasing the amount of air you can take in and out each breath. With thinning ribs and arthritic changes, the rib cage can become less flexible and cause some restriction on your inhalation. Combined, these two changes can increase the work associated with breathing. Other accessory muscles involved with respiration can also become weaker, interfering with your ability to cough and in turn, clear your airway. With age also comes a weakening response of the immune system; the white blood cells that usually provide some defense to invading pathogens within the lungs become less effective putting your at increase risk of infections like community-acquired pneumonia Lastly, within the lungs, the alveoli lose their shape and this in turn makes gas exchange more difficult. Aside from the changes occurring naturally with age, I’ll review some pathology common in older adults. (But don’t fret, next week I’ll share how we can slow or reverse these changes through our actions!)

What Can Go Wrong

Pneumonia: As mentioned above, weakened immune systems can leave the pulmonary system at risk of infection. Infection within the lungs is called pneumonia. The result of inflammation at the alveoli, the gas exchange is impaired and the body can end up in a state of hypoxia, or decreased oxygenation. Other symptoms are typically cough, fever, back pain (typically near the site of the infected lung) and audible ‘crackles’ that can be heard through auscultation. More progressive cases can cause confusion, altered sleep and wake cycles and failure to thrive. Risk factors for pneumonia include immune compromise and immobility. The ability to move air throughout the lungs can help clear out pathogens and as such, it is of critical importance to use strategies like incentive spirometry or deep breathing during periods of immobility after a surgery, during a hospital stay or during a state of illness. Pneumonia is typically treated with an antibiotic if is caused by bacteria, however, some strains of pneumonia can be prevented prophylactically with the pneumococcal vaccine.

COPD: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, or COPD, causes difficulty breathing by way of ‘air trapping.’ In the case of emphysema, destruction of the alveoli due to exposure to irritants like cigarette smoke, causes impaired air exchange and the trapping of carbon dioxide. With chronic bronchitis, inflammation within the bronchial tubes make it harder to inhale and exhale and with chronic asthma, the obstruction is due to inflammation within the airways causing bronchoconstriction, or narrowing of the bronchioles. These disease states leave the lungs less elastic and airways more prone to collapse and this combined, obstructs expiration. People experiencing COPD will have symptoms associated with hypoxia, or decreased oxygen, like coughing, difficulty breathing, confusion and fatigue. Treatment mainstays include keeping the airways open longer during the exhale phase with strategies like pursed lip breathing or spirometry, use of bronchodilators (inhalers) and supportive oxygen in later stages. 

Restrictive Lung Disease: As introduced above, disease and disorders that affect the muscles and bone structure can cause an external restriction in the ability for the lungs to expand. Restrictive disease can be classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic causes include general fibrosis of the lung parenchyma and extrinsic causes involve the lung pleura, chest wall, respiratory muscles or neuromuscular disorders. Neuromuscular conditions like Parkinson’s Disease and musculoskeletal changes like rib fractures and thoracic kyphosis and scoliosis can cause structural changes to the rib cage and lost flexibility. Increased body weight and obesity can block the diaphragm from descending fully and can make both inhale and exhalation more difficult and cardiovascular causes, like pulmonary edema from heart failure can restrict lung expansion from the inside. Presentation involves dyspnea compensated for by rapid shallow breathing and patients will demonstrate a decreased total lung capacity, modestly preserved FEV1, increase airway resistance and a decreased FVC that results in a FEV1/FEV ratio greater than 80%, as well as a reduction in functional residual capacity (FRC), or the amount of air in the lungs that remains when respiratory muscles are fully relaxed.

Treatment for these conditions must address the etiology; stretching, range of motion and postural reeducation may help in cases that have not yet progressed to severe and treating the CHF through pharmacologic management and lifestyle modification will address the cause in the case of pulmonary hypertension. 

Pulmonary Hypertension: PH is a condition in which mean pulmonary arterial pressure is greater than 25 mmHG at rest. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH) is a specific clinical condition of PH in absence of other causes of precapillary HTN. It is quite rare (1, 1000,000-1,000,000). PH is less uncommon, 1% of the population, and is often associated with other hypoxic cardiopulmonary disease like COPD and diffuse parehnchymal lung disease. In setting of hypoxia, pulmonary arterial smooth muscle contracts to cause vasoconstriction to promote ventilation matching, but in chronic hypoxic lung disease, the increased pulmonary vascular resistance resulting from hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction causes the development of PH. Symptoms usually include dyspnea, fatigue, general signs of cardiovascular dysfunction (syncope, angina, heart murmurs) and signs of pathologically elevated systemic blood pressure (ascites, edema, jugular distension). Exercise capacity is limited, and individuals with PH experience increased dyspnea due to inspiratory and expiratory muscle weakness.